The Challenges of Terrain in Meeting the Road Development and Transportation Needs of Delta State.

By Engr. Eric G. Ikogho, M.Sc(Brd), B.Eng., MNSE, MIHE, MIABSE. Principal Partner, Gerik Associates (Consulting Engineers) Paper Presented at the Retreat On the 2nd Anniversary of the Administration of Chief James Onanefe Ibori In Delta State. June 2001.

Abstract

The first part of this paper discusses transport and transportation needs as they apply to Delta State and makes recommendations on the way forward. The second segment x-rays the terrain and constraints imposed by location, climate, geology, rainfall and the availability of construction materials in Delta State on road development and transportation. Road development challenges posed by difficult terrain, soil types and construction materials distribution have been highlighted. Common causes of road failure are discussed and techniques discussed on solutions to common problems associated with failures. This paper ends with a look at the expected roles for the way forward regarding road development and transportation in the State and attempts policy articulation strategies aimed at effecting solutions to problems on transportation, a look at the way forward. Introduction Current economic trends and jet-age globalization require as precursors efficient and effective transportation system, energy and communications networks for the development of any community or State. This paper examines the transportation supply and needs of Delta State and the limitations imposed by the terrain on road development. It spotlights possible causes of failure of the system and possible solutions to the problems identified therein.

Transport And Transportation Needs Of Delta State

A transportation system may be defined as a planned network of elements or physical components that play different roles in the transportation of goods and persons from one place to another. The elements or physical components of a transport system are referred to as the facilities. A transport system can therefore be considered as consisting of fixed facilities, the flow entities, and control system that permit people and goods to overcome the friction of geographical space efficiently in order to participate in a timely manner in some desired activity. Transportation provides the connectivity that facilitates other societal interactions.

The fixed facilities are the physical components of the system that are fixed in space and constitutes the network of links (e.g. roadway segment, railway track) and nodes (e.g. intersections, interchanges, transit terminals, habours, and airports) of the transportation system. Their design, which has traditionally been within the realm of civil engineering. includes soil and foundation engineering. Structural engineering design, the design of drainage systems, and geometric design, which is concerned with the physical proportioning of the elements of fixed facilities.

Flow entities are the units that traverse the fixed facilities. This includes people, vehicles. container units, railroad cars, and so on. In the case of a road system, the fixed facilities are expected to accommodate a wide variety of vehicle types, ranging from bicycles to large tractor-trailer combinations.

The control system consists of vehicular control and flow control. Vehicular control refers to the technological way in which individual vehicles are guided on fixed facilities. Such controls can be manual or automated. The proper geometric design of fixed facilities must be incorporated, in addition to the characteristics of the vehicle, and the characteristics of the vehicular control system. In the case of highway facilities, where the vehicles are manually controlled, these include driver's characteristics, such as time a driver takes to perceive and react to various stimuli. In the case of automated systems, similar, but more precisely definable response times exist as well. The flow control system consists of the means that permit the efficient and smooth operation of streams of vehicles and the reduction of conflicts between vehicles. This system includes various types of signing, marking, and signal systems and the underlying rules of operation.

Six major types of transport systems are identifiable. These are highways, railways. airways, waterways, pipelines and conveyors. All these systems are available in Nigeria. The ones that are very noticeable to the average person are the highways, railways, airways and waterways. Pipelines and conveyors do not seem apparent because they are no^ common systems for transporting persons. An example of pipeline system in Nigeria is the transportation ol crude petroleum from Warri to Kaduna. The transportation of pipe borne water from source (bodies of water like dams, rivers that are not dammed. underground aquifers etc) through treatment plants to houses for consumption is a very common example. For conveyor systems, the transportation of crushed rock aggregate from blasting and crushing points to stockpiles at quarries with the aid of conveyor belts is an example. The handling of baggage at airports is also an example of this system. Escalators are also conveyors. The characteristics of these systems in terms of their facility types and technology used are presented below

Table 1: Types of Transport Systems

* Adapted from the lecture notes of Osula. D.O.

The Present Transport Situation In Delta State: The transport system now operating in most parts of Delta State is an uncontrolled morass of all- comers operating in an environment with little or non enforced regulation, from agencies, either local or State. The result is a chaotic assemblage of ancient contraptions on wheels. The bride is the two-wheeled group, which has found its way into the transport system as the main access into uncharted areas of the state. No visible government contribution is noticeable in this field, not even buses or systems except as profit-making enterprises like the Delta Line, and the Delta Boat Yard. It does not seem that there is any government owned or organised system of river transportation now, except for the management of government business. In most cases the self provided ones have become a source of revenue generation for government. Because of the seeming oversight by regulatory agencies, features like bus stops, parking bays on highways, and even jetties, are not common features in policy formulation for road development and transportation.

Transport Needs In Delta State - The Way Forward: While time was not enough to carry out a transport supply study before the preparation of this paper, the submission above tells a story of gross inadequacy in the transport system. Though the predominance of the motor cycle mode of transport suggests door-to-door service as desired of an efficient transport network, the non availability of modes such as the minibus and bus means inefficient use of energy, especially in a time when the country is going through hard times in gasoline (petrol) supply.

Provision of Support Facilities: Support facilities for public transportation include garages, interchanges like bus stops. designated bus lanes, etc. These facilities cannot be provided by individual operators because of the high capital outlay involved in their provision. Thus it is here advised that appropriate facilities should be provided by the government where they do not now exist. Their provision will no doubt enhance the operation of public transport services.

Regulation and Control of Public Transport Operation: Regulation and control form one way in which government can bring sanity into the transport industry. The lack of both can lead to very undesirable incidences. According to Barbieux (1999), the main - and virtually universal - lesson to be learnt is that the deregulation of urban public transport markets, which was aimed at making the system more efficient (via competition) and to reduce the financial weight for public communities (by resorting to the private sector) only deepened the crisis in the sector, which can only get worse. This by implication applies to non-regulation, as now obtains in the State. The result of this is what was said earlier about the present situation in the State. The present situation now- in Delta State does not suggest the presence of adequate regulation. The benefit of regulation is enormous. It has meant so much in the city, like Buenos Aries in Argentine. The report of Brennan and Ribera. (1999) on how different regulation policies introduced by the government over the years have meant continued increase in capital concentration will make good reading.

Integration And Co-ordination of Public Transport Operation: Usually when transport systems have matured in an area, integration within and between different transport types, integration with the environment, integration within land use planning at national, regional and local level, so that planning and transport work together to support more sustainable travel choices and reduce the need to travel, together with policies for education, health and wealth creation become policy matters for government.

Transportation Needs In Delta State: Transportation needs will be discussed here under the subheadings of travel demand estimation, and public transport subsidization.

Travel Demand Estimation:In order to be able to capture or define a problem more correctly and evolve appropriate solutions to it, effort needs to be put in to establish the true nature and magnitude of the problem. This is what is done in travel demand estimation in an area. It entails carrying out traffic and transportation surveys to estimate the travel behaviour or simply, trip making habits, of the people in the area. There are well defined techniques for such assignments such as are explained in Stopher and Meyburg (1975), ITE (1976) 0,Flaherty (1988) and Papacostas (1987), to mention but a few texts.

Subsidization of Public Transportation: A list of reasons for giving subsidy for public transport are to found in Biy et al (1980). The ones considered relevant in the context of developing countries are as follows;

(i) To maintain a 'viable' public transport service for the benefit of those who do not have a car available to them, as a standby for existing car users and as an insurance against the future -to provide succor for the everyday user of public transport or those who may occasionally have to use public transport;

(ii) To satisfy specific transport 'needs' (of the old, the young, the handicapped, people in remote areas, etc) - to provide special social service.

(iii) To avoid a sense of 'unfairness' felt by captive users as services become more expensive and less convenient, through no fault of their own - to ease travel expenditure burden on patronage in hard times.

A need has been established for subsidization of passenger transportation in Nigeria (See Osula, 1998b), while mechanisms for estimating the level of subsidy required for a transport service mode in developing countries have also been developed (See Osula, 1998c). While the need was based on the declining transport allowance-income ratio vis-a-vis the increasing travel expenditure-income ratio of the average Nigerian commuter, the estimation of the subsidization requirement has been formulated to promote public transport regulation in addition to the primary objective of reducing travel expenditure burden on the average commuter. A modification of the subsidization estimation formula (Osula, 1999) specifically caters for the travel needs of school children and the elderly in the society.

The Terrain Of Delta State:

Location: Delta State is bounded on the east by river Niger, on the south by Bayelsa State, on the w^est by the Atlantic Ocean, on the northwest by Ondo State and on the north by Edo Stale. The south-east, south and the western flanks of the state are inundated by rivers - viz.: rivers, Forcados, Benin. Ethiope, Jamieson, Oroghorlo, Oken, Mamormoh, Ufor, Adofi, Nun, Oobo, Okumesi, Edor, Ase etc. The riverine areas of the state occupy about 30% of the land area of the state and 18% of the land area of the state is mangrove swamp. These riverine areas are to be found in the following local government areas. Warri North, Warn South, Warn South-West, Burutu, Bomadi, Patani, Ogbe Ijoh, Ughelli South, Ndokwa East, Eastern part of Ndokwa West, eastern part of Isoko South. Road development in these riverine local governments are very sparse. While the following local governments are fairly connected by roads-Ika South, Ika North, Aniocha North, Aniocha South, Oshimili North, Oshimili South, Ndokwa West, Ukwani, Ethiope East, Ethiope West, Sapele, Okpe, Uvwie, Udu, Ughelli north and part of Ughelli south. Delta State can therefore be classified into riverine areas where resistance to travel is high and non-riverine where the travel resistance is fair. Apart from the state roads, the following federal highways traverse the State; Benin - Asaba dual carriageway under construction, Benin- Warn dual carriageway under construction and East-West road. Warn - Patani - Port Harcourt. 

2.2 Terrain Delta State is within the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The terrain is inundated with rivers, perennial, and seasonal streams, abandoned river channels, swamps and difficult soils with regards to construction materials. In very simple terms, the terrain of much of Delta State can best be described as difficult. Terrain here is the second of two extremes in Nigeria, the other one being the expansive clay (black cotton soils) region of the north-eastern part o.fthe country. Figures 1 and 2 show the geology and soil types of Nigeria. From a study of these figures it is seen that Delta State shares two predominant soil types, i.e., the ferralsols and the hydromorphic and alluvial soils, derived from the cainozoic sedimentary rocks and recent sedimentary rocks. This situation leaves the State with a very small portion of stable terrain making road and transportation development, challenges that need careful management. Figure 3 reveals that much of the State has the ground surface less than 5 metres above water table for most of the year. The purpose of the paper is to show the way around the challenges posed by difficult terrain. 

2.3 Climate Delta State of Nigeria is in the rain forest and mangrove belt of Nigeria. It rains all the year round but it is safe to say that there are four months of dry season from December to March and eight months of rainy season from April to November. The lowest rainfall of these riverine local governments are very sparse. While the following local governments are fairly connected by roads-Ika South, Ika North, Aniocha North, Aniocha South, Oshimili North, Oshimili South, Ndokwa West, Ukwani, Ethiope East, Ethiope West, Sapele, Okpe, Uvwie, Udu, Ughelli north and part of Ughelli south. Delta State can therefore be classified into riverine areas where resistance to travel is high and non-riverine where the travel resistance is fair. Apart from the state roads, the following federal highways traverse the State; Benin - Asaba dual carriageway under construction, Benin- Warn dual carriageway under construction and East-West road. Warn - Patani - Port Harcourt.

Terrain: Delta State is within the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The terrain is inundated with rivers, perennial, and seasonal streams, abandoned river channels, swamps and difficult soils with regards to construction materials. In very simple terms, the terrain of much of Delta State can best be described as difficult. Terrain here is the second of two extremes in Nigeria, the other one being the expansive clay (black cotton soils) region of the north-eastern part o.fthe country. Figures 1 and 2 show the geology and soil types of Nigeria. From a study of these figures it is seen that Delta State shares two predominant soil types, i.e., the ferralsols and the hydromorphic and alluvial soils, derived from the cainozoic sedimentary rocks and recent sedimentary rocks. This situation leaves the State with a very small portion of stable terrain making road and transportation development, challenges that need careful management. Figure 3 reveals that much of the State has the ground surface less than 5 metres above water table for most of the year. The purpose of the paper is to show the way around the challenges posed by difficult terrain.

Climate: Delta State of Nigeria is in the rain forest and mangrove belt of Nigeria. It rains all the year round but it is safe to say that there are four months of dry season from December to March and eight months of rainy season from April to November. The lowest rainfall of about 30mm is recorded in January and the highest rainfall of about 406mm is recorded in September. The humidity is high.

Geology and the Engineering Properties: Geologically, the Niger Delta is triangular in shape with Onitsha as the apex. The eastern side of the triangle extends from Calabar to Onitsha while the western side-extends from Lagos in Lagos State to Onitsha and the base of the triangle is thus from Lagos to Calabar. The Niger Delta occurs at the southern end of Nigeria bordering the Atlantic Ocean and extends from about longitude 3°- 9°E and latitude 4°30' - 5°20°N.

By reason of the environment of deposition, only sedimentary rocks occur in the length and breadth of the Delta. The sedimentary rocks are broadly of two types; marine deposits in the upper reaches of Delta State and the deltaic sediments of the Niger Delta in the southern reaches of the State. „ The geomorphology of Delta State is directly related to. the regime of sedimentary environment, which are also directly related to the problems and challenges associated with the terrain in road development and transportation.

Three geomorphologic areas can be broadly delineated as follows:

1. Northern belt area, north of Agbor, Abraka Kwale axis, with topography predominantly flat to undulating vegetation, thickly forested. Soil types here are highly clayey sands and reddish brown lateritic sands, commonly of the A2,-A3 materials of intermediate Liquid Limits and Plasticity Index. This area experiences erosion especially where there are cuts- and fills.

2. Middle or central belt area north of Kwale, Sapele, Warri axis, which falls into the interdistributary environment of the Niger Delta has a relatively flat topography, terrain and vegetation related to proximity with the River Niger, the main agent of deposition of sediments. The vegetation here is thickly forested. Soil types are clayey sands, sandy soils and clays, and

3. Southern belt area located in the distal portions of the River Niger which are the distal distributary environment of the Niger Delta. The area is under tidal influence, partly submerged, with meandering streams. It has extensive soil changes over short distances. The vegetation consists mainly of mangroves and swamps, with weak clays chiefly organic clays, highly compressible silts, peats and fibrous soils. A consideration of the geological units will highlight the engineering geological setting of the Niger Delta and therefore of Delta State. 1 Alluvium The first geological formation is

ALLUVIUM.

This is the most recent deposit and the thickness of this deposit is increasing measurably, particularly in Mangrove Swamps zones. The alluvial formation has the following units viz.: (1) Meander Behs, (2) Freshwater swamps (3) Mangrove swamps, (4) Lagoonal marshes (5) Abandoned Beach Ridges, and (6) Sombreiro - Warri Deltaic Plain.

This geological unit occurs in loose form and is very porous. It is water bearing and may have artesian groundwater level. This is usually thick and has wide expanse so it cannot be given cut-to-spoil treatment. The soil is very compressible. Bridges may have to be on piles. High groundwater levels reduce serviceability of roads and cheaper flexible pavements are inappropriate. Imagine a road being built over such a formation. The problem is not bearing capacity but settlement.

2. Coastal Plain Sands

Coastal Plain sands unit underlies the Alluvium. This popularly called Benin Formation in the Delta area. The under geological units which are at deeper levels and are of little importance to road development-include Bende Ameki Group, Imo Shale Group, Upper Coal measures. False bedded sandstones. Lower Coal measures, Asata Nkporo Shale group, Awgu Ndeaboh Shale group, Eze Aku Shale group and Asa River Group.

The coastal plain sand group occurs usually as sand-clayey-silts. Also compressible but less compressible when compared to alluvium. This formation may contain hidden pockets of clay. The hidden pockets of clay may be missed out during site-investigation. Hence there may soon appear large potholes on roads. At certain localities, coastal plain sand formation may contain soluble salts. Hence large sinkholes may appear on roads.

Apart from the problems enumerated so far, the Delta Area of Nigeria does not have construction materials such as rock aggregates and gravel for concrete, and asphaltic concrete works, sub-base and base course materials may be found in inadequate quantity. The construction of roads in this terrain calls for expensive soil treatment.

Flooding

Groundwater levels are usually high and during the wet season, groundwater rises 10 the ground surface level to cause flooding.

Road Development Challenges The terrain as described above poses the greatest challenges to road development. Most of the roads in Delta must cross swamps, high compressible alluvial soils, abandoned river channels, streams and rivers.

Road development in Delta State has to contend with challenges of heavy rainfall with attendant flooding, fairly flat terrain, very poor soils with high water table and in some areas, non-existent construction materials. However, those areas with non-existent construction materials are inundated with rivers that hold the key to road development in such locations. Hydraulic sand fill should be used for swamp displacement and the construction of road embankments.

Swamps In Delta State, sw-amp crossing presents a problem in road construction. In swamp crossings where the depths are not excessive, it may be crossed by carrying out total excavation of the swamp material and replacing with fill material. Care must be exercised to prevent the fill material spreading beyond the limit of the road pre-calculated width. Where the depth is excessive, it may be crossed with a causeway (Deck on pile). Deep swamps may be crossed also by adopting partial excavation and filling, pre-loading with high embankment calculated to produce the same traffic stress as the traffic loading. Construction traffic is then allowed on it for at least two rainy seasons before cutting back to the required crown level and sealed with temporary surfacing before opening to traffic. The swamp crossing should then be monitored over a period of time to see whether the settlement has ceased. The required surfacing is then applied after the rate of settlement has appreciably reduced. This approach was adopted in the 13.72m deep swamp crossing 1.2km long near Mosogar Village on the old Sapele Benin road link, between the Ethiope River and Jamieson river bridges.

Alluvial Soils These soils may have thick layers, which cannot be totally excavated and replaced. The formation is capable of carrying the road but settlement presents very serious problems. Also there is the added problem of high water table which results in floods during the wet seasons. High water table causes the roads built on such formation to loose their bearing capacity resulting in the appearance of potholes on the roads. Partial excavation and filling with pre-loading with pre-determined embankment height may be adopted. But a better solution is to cross such terrain with a causeway (Deck on pile).

Bridges Virtually all the river bridge crossings in this terrain are mostly likely to be founded on piles or other deep foundations. Also pile lengths are abound to be large in order to transfer loads to deeper strata to limit settlement.

Construction Materials From the Engineering Geology, it is observed that this terrain is devoid of suitable quantity of construction materials. Where rivers are near, the sands from the riverbed may be used for filling for swamp displacement and embankments. Where this is not available, fill materials may have to be hauled from long distances at high cost. The construction materials where found may have to be stabilized with cement, lime or bitumen before being used as sub-base or base courses for the road pavement. Aggregates for the Asphaltic concrete surfacing have to be imported into the area at high cost. All these factors taken together, make road development in Delta State very veryexpensive. It is note worthy that the state government is contemplating establishing an asphalt plant which will go a long way to facilitate road construction.

3.5 Causes of Road Failure

Failures on roads in Nigeria are attributable to the following:

• Settlement - due to compressible soils.

• Improper treatment of swamps.

• Poor workmanship

• Drainage - flood, high water table

• Poor design and specification.

3.5.1 Settlement

Even in the areas that roads have been built, there is frequent failure of road pavements due to settlement. Delta State is an area of intense oil operation activities and even though the traffic volume using a road is not high, the wheel load of the few vehicles using the roac may be very high thereby causing settlement due to the. compressible nature of the road formation. It is necessary for pavement evaluation to be carried before the rehabilitation of any roac so that the defects could be discovered, and the correct pavement design made.

3.5.2 Swamp Treatment

Swamps are decayed organic materials, peats and are highly compressible. When rw totally removed during road construction, will present recurring problem during the service life of the road. For an enduring solution, the swamp should be totally displaced or a causeway provided to cross the swamp.

3.5.3 Workmanship

Poor workmanship will always show up during the service life of the road. The East-West road is a case in point. Since this road was completed, so much money has been spent to keep it in service. It was awarded as a design and construct contract and as such the contractor decided to maximize his profit. Fallen tree trunks were left in place and embankment built over them. Unsuitable materials were used for construction. Swamps were not properly treated. It must be emphasized here the necessity for proper supervision by consultants to test and approve every inch of the road and material used.

3.5.4 Drainage

Any road that is impounded by water continuously is bound to fail. Flooding of-the road is bound to occur in Delta Slate when the water table is high. Every effort must be made to take the water away from the road by providing turnouts. Also wide side drains should be provided in flat terrain to provide wide surfaces for the water to evaporate.

3.5.5 Specification

The specification for road construction in Delta State must be tailored to meet the need of the terrain.

3.5.5.1 Road Development In Difficult Terrain Of Delta State.

Usually road development passes through the following stages; planning, design, and construction. The last two of these three stages bother much on engineering and will. therefore, form the subject matter is this section.

In a setting where things are done rightly, the design stage should involve specal procedures in the actual design and the studies leading to the design. This is more so when projects are to be developed in difficult terrain as obtained for the most part of the State. For the construction stage, special procedures or techniques are also required. However, these special procedures differ in both stages.

Road Design For Difficult Terrain.

(a) Earthworks

There are provisions in the Nigerian General Specification for Roads and Bridges regarding such areas as slope of cuts and fills. Most designers never bother checking the stability of slopes carrying out settlement analysis to ascertain some form of special measures required to accelerate settlements if unavoidable. Design of roads in difficult terrain requires working to the limit of knowledge. With this done failures that usually cause disruption to smooth traffic would be avoided.

Special designs such as for vertical sand drains are required to stabilize deep clay foundations that are to carry embankments or fills. The procedure for such a design is very well described in a text like that of Craig (1994).

Another design that is usually recommended for unstable ground is what has come to be known as "road-on-piles" which is briefly mentioned in O'Flaherty (1988). It is essentially flat slab bridge design. Though expensive, it may be the only solution in certain cases. This design was used on some stretch of the Lagos-Ibadan expressway and also along DSC-NPA expressway here in the State.

Yet another approach is the use of geotextiles to reinforce embankment slopes. Though researchers are still skeptical about the use of this design, it seems to offer some hope where cost is a prime consideration. The work of Greenwood (1986) and Smith (1985) are good reading for the interested person, about the theory and reliability of reinforced earth slopes.

It is clear that roads can be built in almost any terrain, using special techniques like the ones enumerated above.

Water Crossings and Drainage Structures Without recourse to reason's for depressions, many road builders have filled such depressions and built roads over them. One of the major causes of road failure has been the lack of water crossings and drainage structures. We should be seeing large culverts extended way beyond the limits of roadways in areas where dried up streams used to exist. Culverts and bridges must not be compromised in road development.

(b) Pavement Design According to Madedor (1983), in areas of alluvial deposits to which most of the State belongs, careful soil survey is essential because of the heterogeneous nature of the deposits, especially in the flood plains. It is recommended that remote sensing survey techniques be employed by consultants, commissioned to carry out road designs for the State government, in order (according to Beaumont (1979)) to make early and effective planning decisions on the location and design of new roads. The paper by Beaumom. which summarizes the various techniques in remote sensing survey, is recommended for the interested engineer since it is written specifically for developing countries.

For the northern part of the State which has relatively good terrain and hence good road construction soil materials, pavement bases and sub-bases could be designed to have cement stabilized materials for low cost roads only. The bases should be designed to be of higher quality materials. Soil stabilized bases and sub-bases which used to be recommended in British designs is only now favored for the topmost layer of the formation surface as capping "layer" (See Powell et al, 1984) where it acts as a working table to carry construction traffic and provides an even surface for the pavement that comes on top.

It is a matter for regret that the oldest method of using CBR (California Bearing Ratio) and traffic volume as sole inputs for pavement design is the one still being used by most designers in Nigeria. It is even more regrettable that the Nigerian Highway Design Manual has not been modified to reflect the latest in pavement development and research when the British from whom the method was borrowed has since discarded it for much better and later edition. This old CBR-traffic volume method does not take account of the resilient properties of the different materials used in a pavement. It does not also give recognition to the wide spectrum of vehicles that use the road. The reasons for the early failures of our roads can be traced in part to the use of methods that only yield inadequate designs in the light of the finding of further researches since when this method was first put to use. It is here recommended that all designs be based on the latest British or American methods. It is be noted that pavement design has even advanced to the stage of using what is called "reinforced hot rolled asphaltic concrete." The interested person can look up the work of Kennepohl and Kamel (1984) on the use of tensar reinforcement in pavements.

3.5.5.2 Road Construction In Difficult Terrain.

The difficult nature of most part of the terrain of the State demands that special techniques be employed in constructing roads which are expected to last the design life for which were designed. For this reason it is recommended that construction contracts be awarded to only reputable firms with proven ability and capability to engage in such constructions. This certainly will leave out almost or many of the construction firms owned and operated by Nigerians.

4.0 Transportation Development In Delta State

The fact that there is a budgetary restraint on the amount of funds available for transportation development; necessitates a unified approach to transportation in Delta State. That is. Delta State should develop both the land transportation (Road) and water transportation in such a way as to improve the overall efficiency of travelling from each destination (villages, towns) to the state capital and vice-versa.

A unified transportation approach is required, such as the development of primary and secondary roads along side the channelization of major rivers. Jetties are located on the secondary roads which link them to the primary road network of the state, in order that the time route factor of travel from each destination to the state capital - Asaba is not greater than an agreed figure say 1.4.

Time route factor is defined as:

Route Factor Of Travel = Actual Time of travel from A-B (using all modes of travel) Time of Travel along a fictitious air distance between A and B at an assumed free flow speed.

This ratio factor gives a measure of the travel resistance from A to B.

If a Local Government Chairman spends a whole day to get to Asaba, then Government must do something about it.

In those areas that are fairly connected with roads. Governments must identify those roads that serve as common distance to several communities and classify them as primary roads and others as secondary or tertiary roads. Pavement evaluation studies, drainage and geometric design studies should be carried to enable the rehabilitation of such roads to provide enduring serviceability to road users - In the riverine areas a combination of channelization and provision of primary and secondary roads should be undertaken. Construction of roads in this area would involve the use of hydraulic sand filling. causeways and bridges.

Expected Roles For Efficient Transportation In Delta State

The Role of the Government It is common to find a government in a hurry to "deliver" awarding a design contract to a consultant and expecting the consultant to also hurry to deliver his design. Instances have been where road contracts have been awarded on the basis of preliminary engineering. The result in most cases in which this was done was astronomical increase in the cost of the project. Some of the projects were later abandoned. It is here suggested that due procedures be followed in award and execution of all types of contracts; whether design or construction.

One other major problem from the government usually encountered in project implementation is non-payment of Consultants fees and Contractors' Interim Certificates as and when due. This puts a great strain on the ability of the consultant and contractor to execute the job. Some governments have had to set up special bodies to remove bottlenecks and attempt to provide professionalism in road construction. PTF is perhaps an attempt by government to achieve this. The NDDC must do this. Delta State can try this.

The Role of the Consultant

The Consultant works to the limit of knowledge in producing his design so all conceivable and tractable factors affecting the design are considered. Failure to consider even what may seem the minutest factor can mean much in terms of cost to government as well as the structural integrity of the finished product. Towards achieving adequate designs consultants keep abreast with the latest information regarding designs in journals, codes of practices, and textbooks. Use them. Let the Consultant be a specialist. An Architect is not equipped to design roads. So also is a mechanical engineer. Both are Consultants. At the construction stage, so much is expected of the consultant so that he is not left to the manipulations of a clever contractor. Honour and integrity are parts of the training of a Consultant, and many maintain this. The Role of Research All without exception of the design codes used in Nigeria are borrowed from abroad; mainly from the United Kingdom and United States of America. It is to be noted that many failures occur on our systems because the procedures used for the designs have not been developed on our setting. It seems effort is lacking in the direction of adapting these procedures to our setting by way of research and development activities. It is here advised that viable research units or departments be set up in the Ministry of Works and Housing and that of Transport to be actively engaged in researches dedicated to developing design procedures for the setting in State. Needless to say the least these bodies can do is have data and materials that aid designs and researchers. In developing this paper, no information was available in the Ministry of Works on rainfall. Not even population figures. Perhaps books are not available there also.

5.0 Recommendations

(a) Waterways & Rural Road Development

Three major rivers are identifiable to ease transportation needs in Delta State, with the provision of primary roads to serve commuters using these rivers.

The Benin River will effectively evacuate goods and services from Warn North and parts of Warri-South. The river can be developed from Ogheye to Sapele through Koko. A primary road from Ogheye along the Benin river to Koko and Ugbenu on the Benin Warn dual carriageway with jetties at suitable discharge points will solve the problems in Warn North and parts ofWarri South and Warri South West. The Escravos River if channelised and trained from Escravos to Effurun will resolve the transport crisis in Warri South-West, while the Forcados River through Warri River to Warri would ease the transportation needs of Burutu, with a primary road from Forcados through Burutu, Obotebe, Ogodobiri to Ughelli South and Patani.

These primary roads will be served by secondary roads from Jetty points along the river canals.

The duahsation of Ughelli - Asaba Road will complete the primary road network within the state, already complimented by the Benin Warri, Benin Asaba and the East-West roads.

(b) Urban Road Development

To ease frustration noticed in some big cities major roads should be dualised, especially in densely populated cities. The Warri Sapele road, Afisere road. Old Agbor road are examples of roads that will decongest these centers and bring the fulfilment of governance to the people. The treatment of central roads in other cities should also be considered.

(c) The Way Forward

While not deliberately dwelling on government polices concerning road development and transportation, one may suggests within the context of the underlining objective of modernization and efficiency in service that government:

• As a deliberate policy provide effective controls and regulations that ensure efficiency in the transport industry.

• Make the provision of subsidy in the transportation sector a tall out of reasons lor governance

• Reduce frustration to improve climates for the protection of major revenue subsisting structures and minerals existing in the state. Petroleum, gas timber and agricultural products are enough incentives for this.

• Provide and manage efficient urban and rural transport systems viz. the provision of commuter buses, cars, boats and other transport vessels for its people

• Provide traffic control systems as appropriate to enhance traffic flow

• Enhance and encourage private participation in the transportation industry,

• Put in place deliberate policies to reduce revenue dependence on transport operation or transport services

Provision of Roads. The tendency has been a focus on the provision of cheap roads. This has attracted dependence on the traditional methods of provision of these roads, and has always followed a pattern of laying asphalt of a collection of materials used traditionally for road construction. The emphasis should weigh towards the provision of durable roads (which may traditionally be expensive), instead of hammering on a maintenance culture designed to protect a weak foundation. The portions of Warn Sapele road built in the early sixties with a concrete pavement has never been maintained. We have seen the endless renovation and reconstruction of the Effurun portion of this same road especially around Jakpa junction. It was a case of Pound wise, penny desperate.

Financial Implication The very nature of the 3 geo morphologic areas suggest different cost outlays for the provision of roads. Although the cost of providing roads differ in these areas mainly because of the preparation of the underlying structures, the sub-base, base, and treatment of the subgrade. The cost of putting the pavement is comparatively the same since all materials come from outside. A rough guide is given in the table below.

Table 2*

Financial Analysis

The long-term benefit of rigid pavements outweigh the initial cost of providing them, especially in the delta regions. In extremely difficult areas this is usually the provision of causeways. These figures are comparative only. Actual costs can only be determined after special studies have been made in the particular locations in which the road is to be built.

Maintenance.

Special units with the sole responsibility of providing periodic checks and maintenance of roads must be established if government is to impact road development and transportation. This has been tried in other states. The road managers in Lagos is an example. Direct labour agencies are best equipped for this, but only after due study of the problem. Putting asphalt overlay on week substructure will only compound the problem.

Conclusion

This presentation has highlighted the existing problems facing the development of roads in Delta State. It has a bias towards providing this essential facility, not withstanding the initial cost outlay because or difficult terrain. The provision of stable roads that will last long, instead of speedy cheap ones is one achievement that makes administrations leave indelible marks in the hearts of the people they govern. The need for deliberate transport policies, subsidy and coordination and intergration of transport modes must be seen as a pre-requisite for the evolution of what can be called a seamless transport system.

The emphasis here must be the provision of roads and efficient transport system, while maximizing the use of funds and not the withholding the use of funds and in the process deny the governed the right to good communication because of the seemingly huge costs involved in project implementation in the difficult terrain of Delta State.